©2013 Flat World Knowledge, Inc. 2 Chapter 1 Introducing Psychology 1. Psychology as a Science o Explain why using our intuition about everyday behavior is insuff icient for a complete understanding of the causes of behavior. o Describe the difference between values and facts and explain how the scientific method is used to differentiate between the two. Section Outline • All psychologists use scientific methods . • Research psychologists use scientific methods to discover new knowledge about the causes of human behavior . • Psychologist-practitioners use existing research to enhance the lives of others . • Data is information collected through formal observation or measuremen t. Psychologists use data to answer questions about, and predict human behavior. • Most ordinary people collect and interpret data improperly. They rely upon their intuition, their personal feelings and experiences about what the right answer should be. Without thoroughly testing hypotheses generated from data, people often think they know the causes of things when they do not. • People often believe they could have predicted the outcome of an experiment once they have seen the results , although research sho ws this assumption to be incorrect . Hindsight bias is the tendency to think that we could have predicted something that has already occurred that we probably would not have been able to predict . • Empirical methods include the processes of collecting and or ganizing data and drawing conclusions about those data . • The scientific method is the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical research . • If a statement cannot be measured objectively or tested for truthfulness, it c annot be evaluated using scientific inquiry. Such statements are frequently value statements. • Values are personal statements or beliefs, whereas facts are objective statements verified by empirical evidence. • Facts can be used by people to help develop or determine their values . • Values can impact research by determining what research is appropriate or important . • Levels of explanation are the perspectives that are used to understand behavior. o Lower levels are related to biological influences. o Middle levels are related to characteristics and abilities of individuals. o Higher levels are related to social groups, organizations, and cultures. • Individual differences are the variations among people on physical or psychological dimensions. • Almost all behavior is multiply determined, caused by many factors, often interrelated causes, which occur at many levels of explanation. • Much human behavior is caused by factors that are repressed, or outside our conscious awareness. Key Takeaways (Introduction to Psychology, v. 2.1 Charles Stangor )
(Instructor Manaul all Chapters) ©2013 Flat World Knowledge, Inc. 3 • Psychology is the scientific st udy of mind and behavior. • Though it is easy to think that everyday situations have commonsense answers, scientific studies have found that people are not always as good at predicting outcomes as they think they are . • The hindsight bias leads us to think tha t we could have predicted events that we actually could not have predicted. • People are frequently unaware of the causes of their own behaviors. • Psychologists use the scientific method to collect, analyze, and interpret evidence. • Employing the scientific me thod allows the scientist to collect empirical data objectively, which adds to the accumulation of scientific knowledge. • Psychological phenomena are complex, and making predictions about them is difficult because of individual differences and because they are multiply determined at different levels of explanation. Exercises 1. Hindsight bias can be thought of as the “I could have told you that” bias. Consider, when one group was quoted “He who is generous is blessed” , they agreed. On the other hand, when a group is told P.T. Barnum’s maxim “There’s a sucker born every minute.” they find generosity to be somewhat foolish. Which is true? Answer: Neither of these studies is a real study. Psychologists often use fake studies as a way of demonstrating hindsigh t bias. People reformulate their experiences and memories to feel right. The students may discuss other proverbs or maxims that are contradictory but apparently true. 2. It is important to provide federal funding for breast cancer research. Is this a state ment of fact, or a value statement? How have facts about breast cancer affected the values we have regarding breast cancer? How have the values we hold regarding breast cancer altered the facts about breast cancer funding? Answer: Breast cancer is commo nly thought to be a leading killer of women. However, heart disease, all cancers, and stroke are the top three causes of death among women. In fact, breast cancer lags far behind the leading cause of cancer deaths in women, cigarette -
related lung cancer , which kills over 70,000 women annually as opposed to about 40,000 deaths due to breast cancer. Breast cancer may not be a leading cause of death in women, but the psychological effects of breast cancer diagnosis and the potential disfigurement from maste ctomy make breast cancer a much feared disease. Funding for breast cancer research therefore remains high. 3. Think about a common behavior like touching your nose or lip when you are nervous. Is this a conscious or unconscious behavior? Why does one touc h his lip or nose when nervous? Answer: The lip touch is an unconscious behavior people perform when nervous. It is thought to be a modification of an infant’s sucking of his thumb when anxious . Most people modify this further by touching their noses rat her than their lips . Students should discuss other common unconscious behaviors. 2. The Evolution of Psychology: History, Approaches, and Questions ©2013 Flat World Knowledge, Inc. 4 o Explain how psychology changed from a philosophical to a scientific discipline. o List some of the most imp ortant questions that concern psychologists. o Outline the basic schools of psychology and how each school has contributed to psychology. Section Outline • The major questions psychology has tried to address have remained surprisingly constant over the his tory of the science . They include o Nature vs. nurture. Are genetic or environmental influences of greater importance in determining our behavior? o Free will vs. determinism . How much control do people have over their own actions? o Accuracy vs. inaccuracy . How well do people process and interpret information? o Conscious vs. unconscious processing. Is our behavior primarily under our conscious direction, or are we substantially influenced by factors that never enter into our conscious awareness? o Differences vs. similarities. Are people more similar than different despite differences in sex, ethnicity, race, culture, nationality, and other social factors? • The first known psychologists were philosophers . o Plato was a Greek philosopher who believed behavior was innate, the “nature” side of the nature vs. nurture argument. o Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who believed a child was born as a blank slate, or tabula rasa , the “nurture” side of the nature vs. nurture argument. o The French philosopher René Descartes be lieved behavior was under an individual’s direct control, arguing in favor of free will. • Wilhelm Wundt, in Leipzig, Germany, and William James, at Harvard in the US, established the first scientific psychology laboratories. • Structuralism , established by Wi lhelm Wundt, proposes that it is possible to identify the basic elements, or “structures” of psychological experience. Structuralism is used to classify our conscious experiences. • Introspection is the method used by structuralists. Research subjects are asked to record their mental experiences as they complete mental tasks. • Structuralism and introspection are limited because of the unconscious processes involved in many activities. • Functionalism , founded by William James, attempts to understand why humans and animals have evolved the psychological aspects they possess. • Functionalism has evolved into evolutionary psychology , the study of how natural selection affects human and animal behavior. • Fitness is an important aspect of evolutionary psychology. Fitn ess is the extent to which a given behavioral characteristic helps an organism to survive and reproduce beyond the ability of the other members of the species. • Psychodynamic psychology , popularized by Sigmund Freud, focuses on understanding human behavior by examining the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. • Behavioralism , championed by John B. Watson, proposes that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and psychological studies should be limited to studies of behavior alone. • Behavioralists believe we are psychologically molded by our environment, and not by our genes. They also believe there is no free will. ©2013 Flat World Knowledge, Inc. 5 • Cognitive psychology studies the mental processes of the mind, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment. • Cogn itive psychology counters behavioralism with the proposal that stimuli that might elicit a behavior are evaluated by the mind, and may result in a different outcome than would be predicted by behavioralism alone. • Neuroimaging is the use of various techniqu es to provide pictures of the structure and function of the living brain , allowing researchers to see the mind at work. • Social -cultural psychology investigates the interactions between social settings and cultures and the ways in which people behave. • Social norms are ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and perceived by them as appropriate . • A culture represents the common set of social norms, including religious and family values and other moral beliefs, shared by the pe ople who live in a geographical region . Key Takeaways • The first psychologists were philosophers, but the field became more empirical and objective as more sophisticated scientific approaches were developed and employed. • Some basic questions asked by psych ologists include those about nature versus nurture, free will versus determinism, accuracy versus inaccuracy, and conscious versus unconscious processing. • The structuralists attempted to analyze the nature of consciousness using introspection. • The function alists based their ideas on the work of Darwin, and their approaches led to the field of evolutionary psychology. • The behaviorists explained behavior in terms of stimulus, response, and reinforcement, while denying the presence of free will. • Cognitive psyc hologists study how people perceive, process, and remember information. • Psychodynamic psychology focuses on unconscious drives and the potential to improve lives through psychoanalysis and psychotherapy. • The social -cultural approach focuses on the social s ituation, including how cultures and social norms influence our behavior. Exercises 1. Modern media such as TV, movies, and the internet provide vehicles for rapid social change. People around the globe can see, hear, and experience the lives and cultures of others at the touch of a button. How might the rapid changes taking place in societies around the world affect the psychology of people in different societies? Answer: Modern media is primarily western in nature, and promotes the view that individual r ights are paramount. Many cultures around the world place the society and its needs above those of the individual, stressing conformity and self -sacrifice for the good of others. Changes in such cultures include a sense of loss of community and family values, isolation and loneliness for elders, increased depression and suicide rates, “honor killings”, and changes in the roles of women and men that cause strife in the home,
