1. Provide a critical definition of the concept “Secondary Victimisation” (5) Secondary victimisation is the ill-informed, insensitive, blaming treatment of victims by
officials, friends, family, or the community. Secondary victimisation is also known as post
crime victimisation or double vic...
1. Provide a critical definition of the concept “Secondary Victimisation” (5)
Secondary victimisation is the ill-informed, insensitive, blaming treatment of victims by
officials, friends, family, or the community. Secondary victimisation is also known as post
crime victimisation or double victimisation, and can often have an even greater effect on the
victim than the initial crime itself. Secondary victimisation often starts when the victim
reports the crime to the police. An example of secondary victimisation by an official would
be when a rape victim reports the rape at the police station, and is faced with disbelief that the
crime occurred. An example of secondary victimisation by friends, family members, or the
community would be when the victim’s parents make statements such as “What did you
expect would happen if you walked alone at night while wearing such revealing clothes?”
2. Explain what internet exploitation and youth internet victimisation is for vulnerable
children who are victimised by predators. (10)
Virtual violence refers to violence that is not physically experienced, but can have a lasting
psycho-social effect. Virtual violence in entertainment includes television, music, film, video,
computer games, and the internet. Virtual violence is exacerbated by children accessing
internet sites that are age inappropriate, such as pornography websites and websites that
promote hate and violence; children being misled and bombarded with intense advertising;
children being lured into providing personal and household information to strangers; and the
ease with which bullies can get hold of their victims.
The internet does not only contribute to the victimisation of young children, but can also
facilitate crimes and antisocial behaviour, including sexual solicitation, unwanted exposure to
sexual material, and harassment. The internet provides sexual predators with the perfect
medium through which to find victims. Predators slowly “groom” their victims by
befriending them, sharing personal information, and even by giving gifts. Once the
child/teenager trusts the predator, he/she can be coerced into meeting and engaging in sexual
acts.
3. Describe the various types of domestic violence in a violent/abusive family context
(15)
Physical abuse:
,Physical abuse is the use of force or threat of force that may result in bodily injury, physical
pain, or impairment. Signs of physical abuse may be external (bruises, bleeding, wincing,
etc.), internal (bone fractures, bleeding, internal tissue or organ injuries, etc.), or both. Some
believe that “normal” acts of force (pushing, shoving, etc.) should be distinguished from
“abnormal” acts of violence (life-threatening abusive acts), although this separation might be
difficult to define.
Emotional abuse:
Emotional abuse is also known as emotional battering, psychological abuse, verbal abuse,
non-physical abuse, indirect abuse, psychological aggression, psychological maltreatment,
and mental or psychological torture. It is an ongoing process in which one individual
systematically diminishes and destroys the inner self (confidence, assertiveness, etc.) of
another. What is considered abuse is culturally determined, and varies from culture to culture.
Sexual abuse and rape:
Sexual violence includes the use of physical force to compel a person to engage in a sexual
act against their will, whether or not the act is completed. Sexual violence also includes any
attempted or completed sex act involving a person who is unable to understand the nature or
condition of the act, unable to decline participation, or unable to communicate unwillingness
to engage in the sexual act.
Sexual abuse is the use of another person’s sexuality for purposes other than mutually
consented procreation or the intended mutual sexual gratification of the parties involved,
regardless of gender.
Rape is regarded as gender neutral. Rape has been defined in the Sexual Offences Act as
follows: “Any person who intentionally and unlawfully compels, induces or causes another
person to commit such an act is guilty of the offence of rape.”
Economic abuse:
Economic abuse is when the abuser has complete control over the victim’s money
“allowance”, including the withholding of money at will and forcing the victim to beg for it
until the abuser relents and gives the victim some money. Invariably, the victim will receive
less money as the abuse continues. This also includes preventing the victim from finishing
his/her education or obtaining employment.
Spiritual abuse:
Spiritual abuse includes using the spouse/partner’s religious or spiritual beliefs to manipulate
them, preventing the partner from practicing their religious or spiritual beliefs, and ridiculing
the other person’s religious or spiritual beliefs.
4. Discuss the plight of male offenders in the prison system as victims within a
correctional context. (10)
Sexual violence in prisons contributes to continuing cycles of sexual and other forms of
violence, both in prison and when prisoners return to society.
, Certain prisoners are targeted for sexual assault the moment they enter prison, due to age,
appearance, sexual orientation, small size, shyness, and uncertainty. The characteristics of
prison rapists seem to be unclear and unpredictable. They are usually younger than 35, are
larger and/or stronger, more assertive, are physically aggressive, and feel more at home in the
prison environment than their victims. They are street smart and are often members of prison
gangs. They usually have been convicted of more violent crimes than their victims.
Heterosexual male victims can respond physically to stimulation from their abusers, and may
then question their own sexual identity and manhood. Other forms of sexual violence in
prison involve physical and emotional violence. Objects can be used and forced oral sex is
also prevalent. Some prisoners form “protective” sexual partnerships to avoid continual
victimisation by many.
In male prisons “women” (wyfies) are “created” by destroying men’s claim to manhood.
Wyfies are regarded as sex objects and servants. Prison “marriages” between men and wyfies
are usually brought about by an initial forced sexual act. In these “marriages” the “men” are
active – they do “business” in prison and provide for the wyfies materially. They are the ones
responsible for the penetration while having sex, and the wyfies have to be passive. “Wyfies”
take care of the “home” space (prison cell) and are sexually available to their partners. Some
prisoners consider rape as a form of fun, while in other cases initiation rape also serves a
social purpose to create classes of men, for example, a class of subordinate men (“wyfies”).
Society holds on to the homophobic myth that a “real man” cannot be penetrated – he should
have been strong enough or fought harder to show that he is a real man. Once a prisoner is
raped, his reputation as a man who has been penetrated is likely to precede him, making him
vulnerable to further assaults. Many male rape survivors in prison question their masculinity.
5. Discuss the South African perspective on victim empowerment and support. (15)
In South Africa, the rate of criminal victimisation is driven up by the presence of both
economically deprived youngsters and the availability of suitable targets. The high level of
crime seems to have structural causes that need to be addressed by a comprehensive crime
policy.
South African crime victims are dissatisfied with their treatment by the police, and also with
the lack of specialised help. Both the care ideology and the criminal justice ideology can be
utilised to remedy this situation. A nationwide network of support agencies for victims is also
needed, and can include volunteers. An effective victim policy should involve a multi-agency
approach.
SA needs a comprehensive bill of rights for crime victims – one that includes proposed
changes in the law, changes in procedures, and new codes of conduct for the professions
involved. Victim policies also contribute to the prevention and control of crime.
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