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University-level biology notes, contains: Unit 1; Chemisty of Life Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function Unit 3: Cellular Energetics Unit 4: Cell Communication and Cell Cycle
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Campbell Biology 11th Edition BY URRY updated 2024/2025 A+ GRADED
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Solutions and Test Bank for Campbell Biology 12th Edition
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Campbell Biology 11th Edition BY URRY updated 2024/2025 A+ GRADED
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Chemin BioAtom
( valence e )
-
outer shell participates in bonding
Bond :
pair of electrons being shared
① tree -
resides ;
equate
-
↳ [ pull electrons ] Sharing
Molecule tho I Hz
Zt atoms that are
covalently bonded - polar or nonpolar
I
ionic compounds
↳
taking of electrons ( as
bigwhdeiehfitnhereecstraonegasivity
I
I
-4
ability to pull
opposed to
sharing) nonmetal + metal another atom 's e-
# of e-
negativity
↳ referred to asa ''
Salt
"
cation anion
Na .
.ci :
→ Nata
-
dissociates
( because Cl > Na electronegativity)
- -
when add
water
(polarity pulls
-
solvent
them apart )
Hydrogen Bond occurs between
Hydrogen on a polar molecule -
electronegative molecule
cut]=[OH ]
-
,
NEUTRAL
-
PH low concentration rt OH
-
ACID :
has a high concentration of Ht -
TEH 'T O -
7 - 14
BASE : has a low concentration of Ht -
LCH 'T ACID BASE
high concentration of OH
-
pH =
log [Ht ]
-
CH 'T lo X
-
-
-
Buffer d
helps to regular pH ( weak acid base pair ) PH X
-
↳ +
-
↳ donate electrons I take e- if pH change is drastic
TOPIC 2- ELEMENTS OF UFE C N p
carb ✓
1. constant input of energy
require ✓ ✓
Living systems a protein
U V
Mainly use energy stored in chemical bonds Nuc Acid ✓
-
-
U U
2.
living systems require an exchange of matter lipid
-
All macromolecules contain carbon
CARBON : bond w/ other carbon to form carbon skeleton
↳ allow for very large + complex molecules
↳ can be used to store
energy t form basic cell structure
,concept 2.3 -
textbook notes
COVALENT BONDS
chemical bonds : the attraction between two atoms
shavings transferring valence electrons
molecule : Zt atoms held together by covalent bonds
single bond :
pair of shared electrons H - H
double bond : sharing of two pairs of CXZ covalent bonds ) H H
-
-
e
valence : the # of electrons needed to complete the valence shell ( Max bonding cap )
electronegativity : attraction of e- towards an atom in a molecule
↳
stronger e- pull Lewis structural
more electronegative =
nonpolar covalent bond : when atoms in a pair hv same electro neg H, H H
H
.
H
-
:
polar covalent bond :
when electrons are not distributed equally
( when one atom electro neg . > other atom ⇐
partial charge ) o, I : : 0=0
.
IONIC BONDS : : H O -
H
H2O l
ions : electron transfer between a metal and nonmetal atom H H
H H
↳ electro neg difference is so strong that they cant share E)
CHE, H H j
. -
:
H
-
H - -
cation :
positively charged ion closes electrons) H l
H
anion :
negatively charged ion ( gains electrons)
sodium chloride -
N Cl
ionic bond :
attraction between anion and cation Nat
÷
e-
"
formed by ionic bonds
n'
÷
ionic compound ( salts) :
compounds
: →
: : : : : :
↳ X molecules ; only indicates ratio of elements in lattice
,
HYDROGEN BONDS : when a hydrogen atom is Magnesium chloride
e- µg2t
covalently bonded to electronegative atom
an
\
St (often oxygen a nitrogen in nature) a-
'
BC hydrogen is .
→ : :
VAN DER WAAL INTERACTIONS :
weak force that holds adjacent
atoms together ( weak individually but strong when many gecko )
-
.
; a
MAKING & BREAKING OF CHEMICAL BONDS
chemical reaction :
changes the composition of matter REACTANTS PRODUCTS
by making 1 breaking chemical bonds
( XZ )
-
↳ cannot create or destroy atoms ; can only redistribute t →
y y
-
.
-
chemical equilibrium when concentration of reactants
:
Oz
and products have stabilized at a particular ratio ( in some 2Hz 2h20
cases this happens when all reactants → products
, Structure of water and Hydrogen Bonding ( 2.3 .
3.1 , 3.2 )
cohesion :
hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together (because of polarity )
↳ contributes to transport of water and allows for water to travel Up plants
Adhesion hydrogen :
bonding between 2 t molecules (capillary action in plants )
surface Tension :
in a pool of water molecules ,
are hydrogen bonded -
to one another but not to
the air above -
asymmetry gives water high surface tension ( bugs can walk on water )
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
thermal energy : kinetic energy (speed of molecule movement associated w/ random atom movement
temperature average kinetic energy in a body of matter (regardless of mass)
:
heat : transfer of thermal energy from one of matter to another
body
calorie :
amt of heat needed to raise 1 g. of water by 10 for heat released when cooled by 1°C
kilocalorie ( Kcal ) : amt of heat needed to raise 1kg of water by 10
specific heat capacity :
amt of heat needed to raise Ig of a solution by to
↳ water 's SHC is high because it needs 1 calorie ( usually lower for other substances )
↳ so much heat is needed because much of it is used to disrupt hydrogen bonds ( liquid → vapor)
↳ IRL CONTEXT : allow large bodies of water to not endure drastic temperature change
high heat of vaporization # of heat liquid needs to turn into gas :
↳ IRL CONTEXT helps moderate the temperature of the ecosystem ( in water cycle heat is released and rainfalls )
:
evaporative cooling : hottest (most kinetic energy ) molecules are most likely to be released as gas ,
which will cause average temp to decline ( cool down environment)
floating of ice :
water freezes BC moles are moving too slowly to break H bonds The bonds keep water moles far apart
-
.
making ice 10% less dense than liquid water
IRL context : as temperature drops floating ice insulates ,
water below , preventing freezing and keep marine life alive
WATER
solute dissolved by the solvent creates a solution
Aqueous solution : when solvent is water ( water is good solvent bc of its polarity )
↳ Oxygen and hydrogen pull apart the cation and anion
respectively ,
and this process creates a hydration shell
hydrophilic : attracted to water (polar, but not all dissolve )
hydrophobic : repel water (non polar , never dissolves in water)
molecular mass : sum of mass of all the atoms in a molecule
Elements of life ( 3.3 , 4.2 .
4.3 , 5)
Dissociation of water ( statistically rare )
Ht It ]
- > C -
J
H
H
H
O
O ll ll
H T O
O
f H
H
H H
Hz Ot
-
OH
pH in balance of Ht and
-
:
balance or OH concentrations
pH 10g [ Ht ]
= -
↳ Acid -
- low conc of OH
-
, nigh conc of Ht
×
↳ Base :
high conc of Ott , low conc of Ht Ht = 10 (x =
pH )
Ht
-
↳ Neutral 17) : conc of OH =
, unit 2 textbook notes ( Chapter 7)
Eukaryotic vs prokaryotic cells
Sim : bounded by a barrier called plasma membrane aka cell membrane
contain chromosomes ( contain genetic info )
contain ribosomes ( make proteins according to gene instruction)
diff :
location of DNA ( nucleus ,/ non membrane enclosed hucleoid region)
cytoplasm ( region between nucleus and cell meant everywhere within cell wall )
organelles I almost no organelles ( membrane bound structures inside cell
larger ( compartmentalized
,
more functions ) ! smaller ( grow faster , multiply rapidly)
SA :
Volume
as cell grows , surface area increases less than volume
when surface area is insufficient , cell will divide or die
if cells grow beyond a certain point ,
not enough material crosses membrane to accommodate large cell Volume
-
. -
cells are small
705 ribosome
circular
Eukaryotes DNA
,€d
peroxisome smooth ER
peroxisome f 7 crista e
rougher
th
"
be °
Ps matrix
°
& " sos ribosome , ! nuclear envelope
§•y
"
nucleus
:÷÷÷÷÷?j÷%÷
'
mitochondrion
'
i
Mitochondrion
.
÷÷÷÷:÷
.
.
.
. .
:*:*:*
..
" " me
/#
9" " "m
Mitochondrion
golgi apparatus thylakoid
°
.
.
vacuole
.
cytosol
I 0 i
-
Tos ribosomes
central cytoskeleton
chloroplast
.
Animals vacuole .
⑨⑧
\
/
.
stroma
Plants
starch granule Chloroplast
organelles t Systems
Nucleus ( information central ) Ribosomes ( protein Factory )
-
enclosed by nuclear envelope
-
made of rRNA ( ribosomal RNA ) -
no membrane
-
lipid bilayer between two membranes -
carry out protein synthesis
pore complex of proteins IKNAI macro bound ribosomes attach to rough Ek crest are free)
regulates entry
-
-
.
-
nuclear lamina supports nuclear envelope (shape)
-
free ribosomes make protein that tune in cytosol ( enzymes)
-
DNA is organized into chromosomes within nucleus
-
bound ribosomes make proteins for secretion , membranes
-
nucleolus produces and arranges cell 's ribosomes
smooth ER ( lack ribosomes )
Rough ER ( ribosomes )
Enzymes synthesize lipids ( oil ,
Steroids , phospholipids)
-
ribosomes on surface produce proteins ( large SA ) -
produce sex hormones ( adrenal gland )
90191 through add hydroxyl to drugs to flush from body ( soluble )
-
-
transport synthesized proteins to -
transport vesicles store calcium ions ( trigger muscle cells 1 Secretion of
anchor and make membrane proteins t phospholipids vehicles carrying synthesized proteins
-
Golgi Apparatus ( shipping trecieving ) vacuoles
-
modification of synthesized proteins large vesicles integrated in ER and golgi
-
more common in cells specialized for secretion 0
Food vacuoles :
formed by phagocytosis
o contractile Vac :
pumps water out of certain organisms
Lysosomes o central Vac :
(plant cell ) promotes growth
-
hydrolytic enzymes renew material ( autophagy )
-
vehicles , carry out phagocytosis ( fuse w/ organelle)
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