Dit zijn de aantekeningen van alle hoorcolleges van het vak 'Migrants and Integration' dat gegeven wordt aan Universiteit Utrecht.
De aantekeningen zijn voornamelijk in het Engels aangezien het vak in het Engels gegeven wordt. Alles in het blauw is informatie uit de werkgroepen.
Lecture 1 - International migration: definitions, types, trends and theories
Part 1 - Definitions
Definition international migration
“Those movements across international boundaries.” → this is a very broad definition.
UN = “those movements across international boundaries which constitute a change of residence”.
- For the purpose of international comparison permanent and long-term immigrants should
include both citizen and foreign nationals intending to stay for more than one year.
International Organisation of Migration (IOM) defines immigration as a process by which non-nationals
move into a country for the purpose of settlement.
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Various types of immigrants
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Main types under the umbrella term ‘migrant’.
Labour migrants - ‘Guestworkers, high-versus low-skilled
Family migrants - Family reunion and formation
Refugees - Asylum seekers, status holders, rejected asylum seekers;
UN refugees
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International students
Refugees and asylum seekers
Refugees
- Fleeing their home country to save their live and who have been accepted and recognized as
such in their host country (e.g.g former asylum seekers, relocated UN refugees)
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Asylum seekers
- People who make a formal request for asylum in another country because they fear their life is
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at risk in their country of origin
1951 UN convention: refugee;
- A person outside his/her country and ‘owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for
reasons of race, religion, nationality or political opinion.
2016 New York Declaration for refugees and migrants; important to distinguish ‘refugees’ from migrants’
S.
Various dichotomies in labeling immigrants
Voluntary versus forced migrants (due to threats to life, war or natural disasters)
Self-supported versus smuggled
Documented versus undocumented
Orderly versus irregular (or illegal)
- Example documented illegal immigrant? → after visa expires, still staying in the country.
Concerns labelling / use of types / dichotomies
Different definitions / interpretations in different countries. Labels don’t fit complex (changing) realities
(e.g. same person may be classified as a refugee and family or labour migrant). Some labels / types
,have a negative connotation in some context (which may hinder integration and disacknowledge
individual characteristics).
From various countries of origin
Nowadays immigrants from many different countries of origin (CO) in many countries of destination
(CD). More diversity in terms of nationalities, ethnic groups, cultures, religious denominations. And
differences in time of arrival: some immigrant groups have a relatively longer history in CD due to some
special circumstances such as decolonisation, war, recruitment of guest workers and international
treaties.
- What were / are main migration routes?
Part 2 - Trends in migration
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Actual trends in migration to the NL since 2000
Family migration is the main type in numerical terms. Asylum migration volume flucuated considerably.
- Reduced to less than ⅓ between 2000-2009
nd
- Increased to all time record in 2014/2015
Strong increase in labour migration (mainly from the EU; e.g. Poles, Germans). Strong increase in
international students (mainly from the EU; e.g. Germans).
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Migration data
Different ways of collecting data
- Population registers → (OECD, EUROSTAT)
- Administrative sources → (visas, residence permits)
- Border controls → (entry and departure)
- Household surveys → (e.g. census, smaller scale surveys)
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- Interview
Main migration data sources:
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● IOM, OECD, UNHCR, EUROSTAT, CBS (NL)
Migration data limitations and concerns
Sometimes it is difficult to compare stocks or flow across countries; different definitions (e.g. foreign-
born and foreign nationals), way of data-collection (e.g. census and registration data).
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- Stock = people who live in the Netherlands who have a migration background.
- Flow = the number of migrants crossing a boundary, within a specific time period.
Illegal / irregular immigrants aren’t included in official data sources (in some cases based on
estimations). Mainly ‘western’ countries (OECD) collect migration data in a systematic way (allowing
cross-national comparisons).
Only a few (comparative) survey studies focus on explanatory factors. These studies often measure
intention to migrate and not actual migration → these two aren’t necessarily correlated: why?
Part 3 - Theories on migration patterns
Migration theories
Explanations at different levels of analysis
1. Micro-levels: characteristics of individuals
, ● individual factors
2. Meso-levels: characteristics of migrant networks / households
● physical, socio-cultural & community environments
3. Macro-levels: characteristics of countries (Push factors CO + pull factors CD)
● policies & government
We have five main theories;
Neoclassical economics theory
Main assumption: people are rational; individuals move to where they will get the most gain. This is an
investment [migration] in human capital [training, education, skills one possess / learns].
- Macro-level: push-pull approach
- Main explanatory variables:
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● income/wage differential (CD-CO) | unemployment differential (or employment CD)
Some recent studies apply a newer version of this theory include a broader range of push- and pull
factors (e.g. weather (temperature) and nature (forest)).
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- Micro-level: cost-benefit analysis
- Main explanatory variables:
● expected income (differential) | likelihood of employment
Stock / flow related to economic trends (wages, unemployment raise)
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New economics theory
Main assumption: migration decisions are taken by larger units of people (e.g. families, households,
communities) in order to minimize risk of household income → i.e. individual actors may not prefer to
migrate. Notion of relative deprivation (i.e. reference group is other families / communities in CO)
- Focus on CO (i.e. push factors)
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- Main explanatory variables;
● low / no access to capital (i.e. deficiency of insurance, credit and consumer market)
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● lack of social security
● high transition costs (e.g. interest rates)
Stock / flow related to broader situation in origin and destination countries (role of family).
Segmented (dual) labour market theory
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Main assumption: industrious countries have an inherent demand for ‘immigrant labour’.
Primary segment Secondary segment
- Capital intensive sectors, with mainly - Labour intensive sectors, unskilled work;
skilled work with relatively high income low income / status jobs
and status ● 3D jobs (dangerous, dirty, dull)
● High skilled jobs (ICT, nursing)
- Focus on CD (pull factors)
- Explanatory factors
● demand of jobs in dual labour market:
➔ primary and secondary segments
Stock / flow related to systematic market structures
, World system theory
Main assumption = relationships between countries shaped migration; capitalist investments of (core)
industrial countries to less developed (peripheral) countries lead to migration to the more developed
countries (profiting off of cheap labour). Marxists / anti-capitalist analysis.
- Focus on relationships between CO and CD
- Main explanatory factors
● rate of growth in capital investment of CD in CO
● former colonies
● cultural similarities (e.g. language / religious denomination)
● established communication and transport connections
● presence of ‘main international harbors’
Stock / flow related to systematic global structures.
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Social capital theory
Main assumption = social ties in CD increase likelihood of migration.
nd
Different mechanisms how ties influence migration decisions; affinity, information, facilitating,
encouraging.
- Focus on ties as pull factors CD (but also in CO). Relevant for perpetuation of migration
(cumulative causation)
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- Explanatory factors:
● quantity and quality of ‘relatives’ (CD or CO)
● (existence and power of) migrant supporting institutions (in CD)
Previous migrants of the same group in the destination country. Stock / flow is related to existing stock
in CO / to earlier flows.
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Neo-classical Neo-classical New Segmented World system Social network
(macro) (micro) economics labour market
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(meso)
Rational Individual, Families, Pull factors / Colonial ties, Existing stock
decision, cost economic households, recruitment, linguistic / from same
/ benefit motives, communities, 3D jobs, skill cultural group, chain
maximization push factors shortage / similarity of migration
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of income demand for
migrant labour
Workgroup - W1
Neumayer → refugees apply for asylum, because of political, but also economic reasons.
Lecture 2 - (Im)migrants and policy
Do migration policies matter? → Mixed views
- No, because structural forces matter more, self-sustaining after reaching critical level, human
rights constrain policy options.
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