This document is filled with all of my notes as an IB Chemistry HL student where many topics are summarised in 1-2 pages with the most important parts except fro chapter 10 and option D which required a bit more due to their elevated importance in paper 2 and 3. This has helped me study for my fina...
Chapter 11 & 21, Measurements & Data Processing (IB Chemistry)
Chapter 10&20 , Organic chemistry (IB Chemistry)
All for this textbook (80)
Written for
Secondary school
VWO / Gymnasium
Scheikunde
6
All documents for this subject (2143)
Seller
Follow
parmisyahoo
Content preview
Homolegeous mixture Moles & Particles
A
• uniform composition & properties throughout Ideal Gas equation Titrations
• ex; air, bronze particles • to determine the concentration of unknown solution
Heterogenous mixture
•
•
non-uniform composition, properties are not the same throughout
ex; concrete, orange juice
-Te constant
· •
•
equipment: graduated pipettes, volumetric pipettes,
brunette (± 0.05 cm^3)
EQUIVALENCE POINT: when the 2 solutions have
I
Gas law relationships reacted completely
Separating mixtures
• air —-> fractional dissipation Moles & Mass
Smaa 2
• salt & sand —-> solution & filtration ·
P Pat
• pigments in food colours —-> paper chromatography
• sulfur & iron —-> use a magnet ~
moles
1
Ionic equations 1 gmol- V T
• shows only the ions or other particles taking part in a reaction, without spectator
ions
Excess & Limiting reactants Temp
State changes
• excess of one or more reactant (excess)
·
vaporising
melting
#
GAS
D
·
Fiening
concensin
• LIMITING REACTANT: not excess reactant
e
• Calculating limiting reactant: number of moles of
reactants, ration of reactants in the equation p
Deposition
The Mole Percentage Yield Real gases
• Avogadro’s constant (Na or L): number of particles equivalent to the percentage -
actual yield
-100
-
relative atomic mass or molecular mass (in grams) yield yield A
theoretical 200k
~
- = 6.02 x 10^23 g/mol Avogadro's law
• Molar mass: the mass of a substance with this number of particles • STP = 273 K, 100 kPa
• 1 mole = atoms in 12.00g of nC • 1 mole (STP) of gas = 22.7 dm^3 I 500k
-
- 6.02 x 10^23 of 12-C = mass of 12.00g • units: dm^3/mol K
Relative mass Molar Gas volume -100
e
----------- ideal
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS:
-
gas
• weighted average mass of one atom compared to 1/12 of 12-C
• Determined by weighted average mass of isotopes
moles Te Pressure
Heightedaverage massofono ↳
er is
Ar =
&d high pressure
,
at low temp
RELATIVE ISOTOPIC MASS: Concentrations of Solutions
• mass of a particular atom of an atom compared to 1/12 mass of 12-C real gases deviate significantly
·
• ISOTOPES: atoms of the same element with a different neutron number
Relative
from ideal gas
Elisotope abundances relative isotopic mas o
atomic =
100
RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS, Mr
• weighted average mass of a molecule compared to 1/12 mass of 12-C tration X solution
(dm3)
Mr
weighted average mass of one molecule (g/dm3))
I
=
Ye mass of one atom of "C
, Isotopes Electromagnetic spectrum *
• are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of • a range of frequencies that covers all electromagnetic radiation • heat or electricity can be used to EXCITE an electron to a higher energy level
protons & electrons but a different number of neutrons & their respective wavelengths and energy • when electrons ‘fall’ back down they must lose the energy different between 2 energy
• FREQUENCY: how many waves pass per second levels
Relative atomic mass • WAVELENGTH: distance between 2 consecutive peaks • this loss of energy releases ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
• the average mass of all the isotopes
high energy • gives evidence for Bohr’s model of discrete energy levels so an exact amount of energy
new enery length short wavelength
(t high frequency • limitations to this model: assumes electrons are fixed, spherical, only works for hydrogen
total mass (% abundancexmassa) +
BX ......
B) low fre quency
(with 1 electron)
......
~wwGAMT
=
of 100 atoma 100
Electron energy levels
RADIO
WAVES MICRO-INFRARED
VISIBLE UV X-
RAYS
Ionisation Energy
LIGHT
WAVES • IE: the energy required for en electron to escape the atom, or reach the upper limit of
• ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION: the arrangement of electrons in an atom
3x00 m/s convergence
• PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n): number of energy levels / quantum shells 2
va C = v .
-
C =
ligh ↑
.
of • Layman series
• quantum number decreases the closer the shell to the nucleus speed
• across a PERIOD: IE increases due to —> increase in nuclear charge, decrease in atomic
• quantum number increases the greater the energy of electrons
Continuous vs Line spectrum radius, shielding remains constant, increase in energy needed to remove an electron
Aufbau principle • CONTINUOUS: in the visible region contained all the colours • down a GROUP: IE decreases due to —-> the outermost electron is farther from the
• ground state: most stable electrons configuration, lowest energy amount of the spectrum nucleus, held less tighter and so less energy is required to remove the electron
• AUFBAU PRINCIPLE: filling the subshells of energy with the lowest energy first • LINE: only shows certain fixed frequencies of electrons
• Exceptions; Cr - [Ar] 3d^5, Cu - [Ar] 3d^10 3s^1 (this is energetically favourable Dips in the IE trend
Line emission spectra
• between Beryllium & Boron there is a light decrease in IE
• each line is specific energy value, electrons posses a limited choice
Hund’s rule • Be -
It : 900k5/mol ,
Is'Is
of allocated energies 25
• B
K5/mo is
• SPIN PAIR REPULSION: spin repel each other when they spin in the
800
-It,
=
↳isfurther awayfromede aan
,
• CONVERGENCE: lines get closer towards blue end of spectrum,
same direction
lines converge to higher energy, electrons reach max energy
• electrons have small spinning charges which rotate on their own axis in • between Nitrogen & Ozygen slight decrease in IE, due to spin pair repulsion
• max electrons reach = IONISATION ENERGY
CLOCKWISE or ANTI-CLOCKWISE • N - It, =
1400k5/mol ,
Is 2s"2px'2py' 2px
• O- It 1310h5/mol 132 Is 2 pc2py' 2 pc
Hydrogen spectrum
=
,
Pauli Exclusion principle
-
↳ 2 é = repulsion between them ,
for one e
to be
• an orbital can only hold 2 electrons
makes it easier
A
L
removed
8
7 Successive ionisation energies
Sublevels & energy Periodic table
• IE of an element increases
S-block p-block
i -V
PLN L
IR C • this is because removing an electron from a position ion , attractive forces increase due to
s
↑ *
decrease in shielding & an increase in the proton to electron ratio
BREFeTT
VvV
Joop
~
(IR) • electrons are harder to remove when there is: less spin-pair repulsion, the closer the shell is
to the nucleus
4S (IR)
ENERGY
>
-
n3
4d n
e
-VVVVV
Deducing the IE group
BALMER
i 1
5d (visible)
• were there is the biggest difference in IE
+ n2
no
f block
Y
-
IS
5f
10000000
I
LYMAN
(ru) Shighogy
n
+ 11
, Periodic table trends
Transition Metals
electron affinity *
ionisation
energy VARIABLE OXIDATION STATES
D
A A • when orbitals are occupies, the expulsion between electrons pushes 4s into a higher energy
METALLIC CHARACTERISTICS
state, so it becomes lightly higher in energy then 3d, losing its electron first
• METALS: 1-3 outer shell
• transition metal ions with +3 tend to be POLARISING, have a HIGH CHARGE Density and
Alkaline
metals vigorously
be * electrons, low IE, low
pull on electrons
-react Het d
electronegativities (due to
-
-
S
with halogens
h A
delocalised electrons COMPLEX IONS
• NON-METALS: 4-7 electrons in • central metal ion + ligand
h T character 8 outer shell, high electronegativity, • LIGAND: a molecule or ion that form complexes which consist of a central metal ion and ligands
E
+ E & high EA (tendency to share —> LEWIS BASE, NUCLEOPHILE
non-metallic
S -'
W
: character - i P
5
↑
electrons and form covalent bonds • CO-ORDINATION NUMBER: number of co-ordinate bonds to the central metal atom or ion
r - • NAMING COMPLEXES: prefix for number of ligands/ligands name/element/oxidation number
metallic
8
OXIDES:
-
d e • Na and Mg oxides are basic
V
=
• Al oxides are amphoteric CATALYTIC PROPERTIES
#
• Si to Cl oxides are acidic
• can catalyse certain REDOX REACTIONS —> can be readily oxidised and reduced
*
* • HETEROGENOUS catalyst has a different physical state (phase) from the reactants
atomic radius
# • HOMOGENOUS catalyst is the same physical state (phase) as the reactants
ELECTRON AFFINITY • BIOLOGICAL catalysts
ATOMIC RADIUS
• distance between nucleus of an atom & outermost electron shell • amount of energy released when 1 mole of
electrons is gained by 1 mole of atoms of gaseous MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
• ACROSS A GROUP: nuclear charge increases = greater pull
state to form gaseous ion (- charge) • DIAMAGNETISM: the property of all materials and produces a very weak opposition to an
• DOWN A GROUP: increase in number of shells, increase in
• first EA = exothermic applied magnetic field —> from repulsion of electrons to the applied magnetic field, create a tiny
shielding, weak pull
• second EA = endothermic (overcoming repulsion magnetic dipole
between electrons and - ion) • PARAMAGENTISM: only occurs in substances which have unpaired electrons, produces
IONIC RADIUS
magnetism proportional to the applied field in the same direction
• measure of size of an ion
• FERROMAGNETISM: the alignment of the unpaired electrons in an external field can be
• DOWN A GROUP = increases ELECTRONEGATIVITY
retained so that material becomes permanently magnetised
• ACROSS A PERIOD: ionic radii increases with an increase • the ability of an atoms to attract a pair for electrons
in - charge, ionic radii decreases with an increase in + charge towards itself in a covalent bond
COLOURED COMPOUNDS:
• arises form the + nucleus ability to attract - charged
• d-block elements have unpaired electrons
electrons
IONISATION ENERGY • the d-orbitals are split into two energy levels
• PAULING SCALE - assigned electronegativity value
• DOWN A GROUP= increase in nuclear charge, increase in • electrons can transition between these energy levels
• FLUORINE most electronegative
shells, increase in shielding, increase in atomic radius, • in the meantime they can absorb energy form light at a visible wavelength and thus, one can
• DOWN A GROUP = negligible nuclear charge increase,
electrons held more loosely observe the complimentary colour
increase in shielding, increase in atomic radius, decrease
• ACROSS A PERIOD = increase in nuclear charge, shells
in attraction of nucleus and electron
remain the same, shielding remains constant, decrease in
atomic radius, electrons held more tightly
, Formals charge
Orbitals
• FC = valence electrons - 1/2 (number of bonding electrons) - (number of non bonding electrons)
• s= s orbital is closer to nucleus =
·
greater bond compared to p orbital • —> FC = V - 1/2 x B = N
• p= & • most preferred structure when formal charge is 0
• d=
• f =& Hybridization H
Cl Hy I
It - -s
294 sp3
↑ P
st
• 4 single bonds = sp^3 c = H C
J
H
C
• each atom that combine has an atomic orbital
-
p
- -
i
• 3 single bonds = sp^2
↓I I -
S
-
↳
-
P
> Oxygen has 2 lone pairs of
containing a single unpaired electron
• 2 single bonds = sp CI
C d Hip H3
electrons. This is also counted.
• when a covalent bond is formed, form a combined
CI Sp
orbital containing 2 electrons
• Consider double single bonds with hybridisation cause it is about s and p orbitals
• the greater the atomic over lap, the stronger the bonds
Shapes of Molecules 4
-bond Resonance structures Trigonal bipyramid
jop
.. 180
- CI
120
• bonding pairs = 5
• are formed from head to head (end to end) overlap to atomic orbitals F di
• lone pairs = 0
-
II
• a single covalent bond formed when 2 non-metals combine Species Resonance structure Hybrid
D&
• molecular geo = Trigonal bipyramid
&
-
• the electron density is concentrated between 2 nuclei Carbonate ions gi·
:
[o]"
Sp
Die
• s + s orbital & s + p-orbitals = sigma ortbial
di-
E > C
&
S
-
I+ &D
4) H CO is - - · • bonding pairs = 4 Fe
...... 2179
O
a-
.. :
-
S
-
Sp
• lone pairs = 1
&
-
• the electron density in a sigma bond is symmetrical about a line Benzene
•
joining in the nuclei of the atoms forming the bond
The electrostatic attraction between the electrons and nuclei bond
& • molecular geo = See saw
F
• bonding pairs = 3
the atom to each other Ozone
r I
...
↑
7
& F
• lone pairs = 2
-
D3 "
0..
.
F
-
• molecular geo = T- shape
Carbonylate ion
T -bonds
E m-
:
[
-
(RCOO )
&
c • bonding pairs = 2
R- -
m
• are formed from the sideways overlaps of adjacent orbitals -
r
o
• lone pairs = 3
r -
-
• the 2 lobes that make up the pi-bond lie above and below the plane
• molecular geo = linear
-
of a sigma bond
• this maximise overlap of p-orbitals
Octahedral
• a single pi-bond is drawn as 2 electron clouds, one arising from F
• bonding pairs = 6
F F
each lobe of p-orbitals
...........
S
·
• lone pairs = 0 #
#F
&
• p-orbital + p-orbital = pi bond if ‘lateral overlap’, from double bonds F
• molecular geo = Octahedral
O - ..... i ..... F
Ef • bonding pairs = 5
F
- c c
- plane
-
>
-
T
& • lone pairs = 1
I F>F S
S
-
-
e-cloud
• molecular geo = Square based planar
180
F
• bonding pairs = 4 ...-
F
Xe---
XX
• lone pairs = 2 F
/ 1 XX
-
• molecular geo = Square planar
The benefits of buying summaries with Stuvia:
Guaranteed quality through customer reviews
Stuvia customers have reviewed more than 700,000 summaries. This how you know that you are buying the best documents.
Quick and easy check-out
You can quickly pay through credit card or Stuvia-credit for the summaries. There is no membership needed.
Focus on what matters
Your fellow students write the study notes themselves, which is why the documents are always reliable and up-to-date. This ensures you quickly get to the core!
Frequently asked questions
What do I get when I buy this document?
You get a PDF, available immediately after your purchase. The purchased document is accessible anytime, anywhere and indefinitely through your profile.
Satisfaction guarantee: how does it work?
Our satisfaction guarantee ensures that you always find a study document that suits you well. You fill out a form, and our customer service team takes care of the rest.
Who am I buying these notes from?
Stuvia is a marketplace, so you are not buying this document from us, but from seller parmisyahoo. Stuvia facilitates payment to the seller.
Will I be stuck with a subscription?
No, you only buy these notes for $18.36. You're not tied to anything after your purchase.
