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Summary A level African American essay plans
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A* African Americans essay plans following OCR history specification.
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African American essay plans1. Assess the importance of the federal government in the advancement of African American
civil rights in the period from 1865-1992
The position of African Americans undeniably improved in regard to civil rights during the period
from 1865 to 1992. However, the extend for change in their position arguably hinged upon the
attitudes of the 3 branches of the federal government: the Supreme Court, congress, and
executive (presidents). In the early years of the period and during reconstruction, there was a
heightened level of fed govt intervention in which saw the securing of many rights under various
acts and amendments, however, following the 1877 Hayes compromise the federal
government’s intervention diminished and so too did any of the rights gained by African
Americans. The federal governments most active involvement in the plight of AA civil rights/ in
the advancement of AA’s was during 1950s-60s, whereby all 3 branches played a pivotal role in
the advancement of AA’s through civil rights acts, positive attitudes of presidents, and
favourable court rulings. Therefore, the overall importance of the federal govt throughout the
period will be assessed through tackling each individual branch and the impact their actions had.
Arguably, when the 3 branches of the fed govt were seen to work harmoniously/cohesively and
with united aims, the most marked progress was made towards achieving civil rights for AA’s;
hence suggesting the fed govts clear significance in paving awful for AA equality.
Theme 1: Presidents
The attitudes of presidents from 1865 were significant in both the restriction and advancement of
AA civil rights and often hinged upon their own views regarding the status of AA’s.
Negative actions of presidents…... not important in advancing AA civil rights.
Andrew Johnson- Despite instantaneous improvement of political rights after emancipation, the
southern states with the approval of Johnson were quick to repress existing rights and hence
their position receded. had a diminutive attitude towards AA’s, ensuring that his significance as
president lay in restricting AA civil rights and not advancing them. Johnson= issued thousands of
pardons to southern rebels, attempted to veto 1866 civil rights bill, also allowed development of
black codes to occur in south which served to massively hinder AA civil rights. clearly
demonstrated that Johnson, as a pivotal figure in the federal government, was persistent in
keeping AA’s inferior and thus his presidency was a reflection of the inability of the federal
government to pass sufficient reforms without resistance from both southern white’s and
Johnson. This was hence an indication of the importance of presidents as part of the federal
government in allowing the advancement of civil rights, their opinion was key to what extent the
federal government could act
vetoed bills, allowed south to develop laws which restricted rights upheld by the constitution
Wilson- a segregationist who actively supported policies that discriminated against AA’s. During
presidency he supported segregation of federal workplaces and implemented policies that
reinforced segregation in the military during WW1. He also failed to take action to address the
lynchings and other forms of racial violence AA’s were subject to. When he entered white house
all black advisors to fed govt were dismissed, undermining any political status AA’s had gained.
Reagan- his economic policies, opposition to affirmative action, and rhetoric had significant
negative consequences for the AA community. Indicative that negative attitudes and an
unwillingness of fed govt to advance rights of AA’s had persisted to the end of the period.
Generally, throughout period, presidents were indifferent, incompetent, preoccupied or powerless
and with southern democrats occupying leading positions in congress, federal intervention seemed
unlikely.
, As the general climate of racism diminished/ activism against racism and the fight for equality
increased in 1950s-60s, the attitudes of the presidents adapted
Positive action of presidents…. Seen to be significant in advancing AA’s civil rights
Roosevelt- New deal legislation, fair employment practices commission. By 1925, 30% of black
families were on relief in comparison to 10% of whites (illustrated disparity in wealthy but also
the fair application of the policy towards them). Roosevelt= issued an executive order in 1941
banning racial discrimination in federal employment and set up the fair employment practices
commission (FEPC) to monitor this. Roosevelt paved the way for future presidents and
subsequently the federal government to take direct action in regards to civil rights.
Lyndon B Johnson- civil rights act of 1964 and voting rights act of 1965
Truman- issued executive orders to desegregate armed forces in 1948. Was also seen to
commission a president committee on civil rights in 1946 and its report identified major civil
rights problems. Truman was creating a climate of opinion that’s made the reception of future
changes much more positive than they would have otherwise been (although no legislation
followed because congress remained firm in its resistance).
Nixon- positive discrimination, idea was to make allowances for the lack of opportunity for the
AA freed for a century but discriminated against for most of it. Could the lack of formal
educational qualifications be overlooked in view of the lack of equality of opportunity? In 1969
Nixon took up the idea to tackle discrimination in the construction industry; in the Philadelphia
plan contractors set targets for hiring people from minorities. Result- increase in black workers
from 1 to 12%. For once, all three powers in the American Constitution (legislature, executive
and judiciary) were in harmony.
Theme 2: Congress
Arguably, the most striking progress for AA’s as a result of the actions of congress was seen in
the years of reconstruction and in the period following 1963; during which AA’s were seen to
benefit from a myriad of acts/federal bills such as the 1870 enforcement acts, the 1875 civil
rights act, the 1964 civil rights act and 1965 voting rights act. However, in the period from 1877
(following Hayes Compromise) to 1960, there was generally little progress made by congress in
advancing AA civil rights; indicating that whilst at times in the period congress was important in
advancing AA civil rights, they were equally important in restricting their rights
Examples of positive action taken by congress, which had impact of advancing civil rights of
AA’s/ helping improve quality of life.
- freedman’s Bureau: set up by congress in 1865 to support freed slaves in the short term and
to provide a basis for long term security- help included finding homes and employment and
providing food, education and medical care. EXAMPLE OF CONGRESS SHOWING CARE FOR
PLIGHT OF AA’s
- Civil rights act 1875- motivated by increasing concern about the growing formalisation of
segregation in southern states, act made clear that equal rights applied to public areas:
whist showing perhaps the positive attitude of Congress, it had little impact/wasn’t enforced
and was declared unconstitutional by SC in 1883. GOOD EXAMPLE TO SHOW THAT DESPITE
CONGRESS TRYING TO HELP AA’S ADVANCE, THE ABILITY FOR SUCH ACTS TO ACTUALLY
HAVE IMPACT IS IF THE 3 BRANCHES ARE IN AGREEMENT/WORK COHESIVELY. INDICATIVE
THAT FED GOVT ONLY ABLE TO HELP WHEN UNITED.
- Enforcement acts 1870 and 1871- KKK acts, passed to end violence AA’s subjected to,
however end of formal reconstruction in 1877 allowed for a return of large scale
disenfranchisement of AA’s and passing of Jim Crow laws. ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF THE
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