(Human Development A Life-Span View, 8e Robert Kail, John Cavanaugh)
(Instructor Manual)
Chapter 1
The Study of Human Development
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter offers a comprehensive discussion of the foundational principles regarding human
development. As you read Chapter 1, you will see key terms highlighted, learning objectives clearly
identified, questions to think about, and “Test Yourself Questions” at the end of each section to help
reinforce learning. The authors have included personal connections to assist students with better
understanding of the concept of human development. For example, students will see the connection
between their own personal life experiences and how they relate to the process of human development.
Chapter 1 defines the study of human development and establishes it as the multidisciplinary study of
how people change and how they remain the same over time. Beginning in this chapter and reappearing in
subsequent chapters, students will read about three recurring issues in human development: (1) nature
versus nurture; (2) continuity versus discontinuity; and (3) universal versus context-specific development.
Because of the influence of nature and nurture on everything human, and the continuing debate regarding
the influence of genetics versus environment on development, the authors have expanded this discussion.
They also introduce readers to the biopsychosocial framework, which focuses on the four interactive
forces that influence human development across the life span: biological forces, psychological forces,
sociocultural forces, and life-cycle forces. The second part of Chapter 1 focuses on the developmental
theories used in life-span research to help us address the “whys” for development. Although there are no
truly comprehensive theories of human development, five general perspectives influence current research:
psychodynamic theory, learning theory, cognitive theory, ecological and systems theory, and the life-
span/selective optimization with compensation/life-course perspective. The latter part of the chapter
focuses on conducting the developmental research and the various research methods used. The chapter
ends with a discussion regarding the responsibilities of researchers in conducting ethical research and in
communicating results from research findings. The authors also highlight the importance of research
results in driving public policy.
Every subsequent chapter references the biopsychosocial framework, the different theoretical
perspectives, and the different types of methods used to study life-span development. Thus, it is important
that students are well grounded in both theory and methodology and fully understand the three recurring
issues—nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and universal and context-specific
development—in human development.
A summary as well as a list of key concepts is provided to help reinforce information presented
throughout the chapter. If students or the professor wants to learn more about these topics, a list of
additional readings is provided, along with useful websites and a list of relevant videos. A comprehensive
outline of the chapter is as follows.
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Thinking About Development
A. What Is Human Development?
1. Human development is the multidisciplinary study of how people change and how they
remain the same over time.
2. The science of human development (1) reflects the complexity and uniqueness of each
person and their experiences, (2) seeks to understand commonalities and patterns across
people, (3) is firmly grounded in theory, and (4) seeks to understand human behavior.
B. Recurring Issues in Human Development: Three fundamental issues dominate the study of
human development.
1. Nature Versus Nurture is the degree to which genetic influences (nature) or
experiential/environmental influences (nurture) determine the kind of person you are.
Despite the ongoing debate as to which influence is greater, theorists and researchers
recognize that development is always shaped by both—nature and nurture are mutually
interactive influences.
2. Continuity Versus Discontinuity focuses on whether a particular developmental
phenomenon represents a smooth progression throughout the life span (continuity) or a
series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity).
3. Universal Versus Context-Specific Development focuses on whether there is just one
path of development or several. In other words, does development follow the same general
path in all people, or is it fundamentally different, depending on the sociocultural context?
C. Basic Forces in Human Development: The Biopsychosocial Framework. This framework
emphasizes that these four forces are mutually interactive and that development cannot be
understood by examining them in isolation. By combining the four developmental forces, we
have a view of human development that encompasses the life span, yet appreciates the unique
aspects of each phase of life.
1. Biological forces include genetic and health-related factors that affect development. Some
biological forces, such as puberty and menopause, are universal and affect people across
generations, whereas others, such as diet or disease, affect people in specific generations or
occur in a small number of people.
2. Psychological forces include all internal perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and personality
factors that affect development. Psychological forces are the ones used most often to
describe the characteristics of a person and have received the most attention.
3. Sociocultural forces include interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors that affect
development. Culture refers to the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors associated with a
group of people. Overall, sociocultural forces provide the context or backdrop for
development. Consequently, there is a need for research on different cultural groups.
Another practical problem is how to describe racial and ethnic groups.
4. Life-cycle forces reflect differences in how the same event affects people of different ages.
The influence of life-cycle forces reflects the influences of biological, psychological, and
sociocultural forces at different points in the life span. The same event can have different
effects depending on when it happens in a person’s life. Life-cycle factors provide a
context for understanding how people perceive their current situation and its effect on
them.
D. Neuroscience: A Window into Human Development
1. Neuroscience is the study of the brain and the nervous system, especially in terms of
brain–behavior relationships. This helped reveal interactions between biological,
psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces.
II. Developmental Theories
, The Study of Human Development
A. A theory is an organized set of ideas designed to explain development.
1. Theories organize knowledge in order to provide testable explanations of human behaviors
and the ways in which they change over time.
2. There are no truly comprehensive theories of human development to guide research.
B. Psychodynamic theories hold that development is largely determined by how well people
resolve the conflicts they face at different ages. This perspective can be traced to Sigmund
Freud’s theory that personality emerges from conflicts experienced in childhood. Building on
Freud’s idea, Erik Erikson proposed the first comprehensive life-span view of psychosocial
development, in which he identified eight universal stages, each characterized by a particular
struggle. The sequence of Erikson’s theory is based on the epigenetic principle, which means
that each psychosocial strength has its own special period of particular importance. The
psychodynamic perspective emphasizes that the trek to adulthood is difficult because the path is
strewn with challenges.
C. Learning theory focuses on how learning influences a person’s behavior. This perspective
emphasizes the role of experience and that people learn from watching others around them.
Two influential theories in this perspective are behaviorism and social learning theory.
1. Behaviorism focuses on the work of John B. Watson, who believed babies were born a
“blank slate,” and B. F. Skinner, who focused on operant conditioning. Operant
conditioning is based on the notions of reinforcement, punishment, and environmental
control of behavior.
2. Social learning theory proposes that people learn by observing others in what is called
imitation or observational learning.
3. Albert Bandura based his social cognitive theory on both cognitive and social aspects. He
believed that self-efficacy—people’s beliefs about their own abilities and talents—helps
determine when people will imitate others.
D. Cognitive-developmental theory focuses on thought processes and the construction of
knowledge. From this perspective, the key is how people think and how thinking changes over
time. This theory involves three distinct approaches:
1. Piaget’s theory proposes a four-stage universal sequence of cognitive development in
which the child constructs knowledge in a new way in each stage.
2. Information-processing theory proposes that human cognition consists of mental
hardware and software. Mental hardware refers to cognitive structures, and mental
software includes organized sets of cognitive processes.
3. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory focuses on the ways that adults convey to children the
beliefs, customs, values, and skills of their culture. Vygotsky was one of the first theorists
to emphasize that children’s thinking is influenced by the sociocultural context in which
they grow up.
E. The ecological and systems approach proposes that human development is inseparable from
the environmental contexts in which a person develops. Two examples of the ecological and
systems approach are Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model and the competence–environmental
press framework.
1. Urie Bronfenbrenner, one of the best-known ecological theorists, proposed that
development occurs in the context of a series of complex interconnected systems.
Bronfenbrenner identified four levels of the environment: (1) microsystem, (2)
mesosystem, (3) exosystem, and (4) macrosystem.
2. Competence–environmental press theory suggests that there is an optimal “best fit”
between one’s abilities and the demands placed on a person by the environment. People
adapt most effectively when there is a good match between their competence or abilities,
and the environmental press, or the demands put on them by the environment.
F. Life span, selective optimization with compensation, and life-course perspectives view
development in terms of where a person has been and where he or she is heading.
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1.
The life-span perspective argues that human development is multiply determined and
cannot be understood within the scope of a single framework. Its basic premise is that
aging is a lifelong process of growing up and growing old, beginning with conception and
ending with death. Paul Baltes and colleagues identified four key features of the life-span
perspective:
a) Multidirectionality—development involves both growth and decline.
b) Plasticity—one’s capacity is not predetermined or carved in stone.
c) Historical context—development occurs within a particular set of circumstances
determined by the historical time period and the culture in which we grew up.
d) Multiple causation—how we develop results from biological, psychological,
sociocultural, and life-cycle forces.
2. The selective optimization with compensation (SOC) model is based on the assumption
that three processes (selection, compensation, and optimization) form a system of
behavioral action that generates and regulates development and aging. The selection occurs
for two main reasons: elective selection and loss-based selection. Compensation occurs
when a person’s skills have decreased, and optimization involves minimizing losses and
maximizing gains.
3. The life-course perspective describes the ways in which various generations experience the
biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective
historical contexts. The key feature of the life-course perspective is the dynamic interplay
between the individual and society, which involves three major factors: the individual
timing of events; the synchronization of individual transitions; and the impact of earlier life
events.
III. Doing Developmental Research
A. Measurement in Human Development
1. Systematic observation involves watching people and recording what they do in a natural
setting, naturalistic observation, or in a setting created by the researcher for structured
observation.
2. Sampling behavior with tasks is used when a behavior cannot be observed directly. A
task is created to sample the behavior of interest.
3. Self-reports are people’s answers to questions about the topic of interest.
4. Physiological measures involve measuring people’s physiological responses (i.e., heart
rate and cortisol levels) to focus on a particular aspect of a person’s behavior.
5. Reliability and validity refer to the extent to which a measure provides a consistent index
of a characteristic (reliability) and whether it really measures what we think it measures
(validity).
6. Representative sampling must reflect the characteristics of the population of interest.
B. General Designs for Research
1. Correlational studies allow the researcher to investigate relationships between variables.
A correlation coefficient expresses the strength and direction of a relation between two
variables. The size or strength of a relation is measured by how much the correlation
differs from 0 to +1(positive) or -1(negative).
2. Experimental studies involve systematically manipulating key factor(s) that the
investigator thinks causes a particular behavior.
a. Independent variable is the variable being manipulated (cause).
b. Dependent variable is the behavior being observed (effect or outcome).
